Actually, the linen industry flourished in Europe until the 18th century. Specifications for bast fiber growing. However, there are been used. As a result, there is an increase in demand for commercial use of the natural fiber-based composites in recent years for various industrial sectors. This process could also be used to replace wood fiber in MDF materials used for making desks, tables, and other furniture. A wide range of plants, including cotton, kapok, jute, flax, ramie, sisal, and hemp, may be used to produce plant fibre and many fibre plants are … K.A. This work describes flax fibre reinforced polymeric composites with recent developments. ), linen-synthetic (warp polyester/cotton blended or polyester/viscose blended, weft linen or linen-jute or linen-cotton, etc. In these geotextiles there is another area where the quantum added value of this flax fibre is possible. In another work 36, degummed ramie fibre of cut staple length 20 cm was processed in flax carding system and subsequently blended with jute fibre during drawing stage. The fibres occur in bundles or aggregates [Hearle 1963]. X-Q. Nanocrystalline cellulose is generally synthesized by acid hydrolysis of native cellulose, and the properties of final product markedly depend upon reaction time, temperature, and acid concentration. The use of flax fibers as reinforcements requires taking into account their specificities such as the length of the single fibers of between 5 and 80 mm, their high anisotropy linked to their microstructure, and their sensitivity during the transformation phase to the thermal cycle (two relevant parameters: temperature and exposure time). Flax is grown in Western Europe, Eastern Europe, China, and Egypt. For this reason, a short section of the root end is processed first in both hackling and scutching, allowing the remaining length to be processed towards the tip, thereby minimizing the breakage of the bundles.26 About one third of the stem is fibre, and the rest is made up of the woody core and the outer bark. Flax fiber is obtained from the inner bark of the stem of a plant grown in temperate and subtropical regions of the world. Having grasped the basics of the commercial fibres of cotton, wool, silk and flax (linen), we moved on to the more complex and imaginatively bizarre sources of fibre. This plant is popular for two reason: one is flax fibre and another is linseed oil (used for industrial applications) extracted from the seed of … Current knowledge allows a better understanding of the influence of numerous parameters (from the influence of growth conditions, retting, and fiber extraction) on the fiber properties and better control of their production. Things like paper, horse hair, citrus, coffee and even 'growing' fabric. Jute and other textile bast fibres (excluding flax, true hemp and ramie), raw or processed but not spun; tow and waste of these fibres (including yarn waste and garnetted stock) 5303.10.00.00-Jute and other textile bast fibres, raw or retted: 5303.90.00.00-Other Jute fabric is a type of textile fiber made from the jute plant. Natural fibers can either be derived from plants (like cotton, jute, flax, bamboo, hemp or abaca) or manufactured from cellulose fibers (like viscose rayon or cellulose acetate). It grows to a height of from 1-4 ft. The development of agro-based composites is relatively new and some properties are still to be studied, amongst other things, on industrial materials. Ramie is one of the strongest natural fibres, similar to flax. In medical practice, they are used as a surgical dressing made up of natural or artificial materials. The heavier fabrics are characterized by a dry and harsh touch, a tendency to wrinkle, a certain unevenness in yarn and fabric, and a possibly low dimensional stability and breaking elongation (3–4%). Besides these favorable properties that provide a high degree of wear comfort, some disadvantages have to be stated as well. Their good dyestuff uptake properties allow easy dyeing, but also their natural colors show many varieties. Although the demand for natural fibers is growing worldwide and its price is increasing, annual plants such as jute, sisal, flax or hemp require further development to provide novel products with improved properties. According to historical records, the earliest example of preserved linen appears to be a needle-netted linen headpiece from Nahal Hemar Cave in Israel 8500 years ago, and Swiss Lake Dwellers used a native flax to make cloth 5000–6000 years ago. Coarser grades are used for the manufacture of twine and rope. Physical, thermal, and mechanical properties of the natural fibres are examined to evaluate their suitability as discontinuous reinforcements whilst also generating a database for material selection. Plants including cotton, jute, flax and hemp are used to obtain plant fibres. Apart from these apparel applications, flax fibre has wide potential in the area of industry in the form of nonwovens (Maity et al., 2014). limited by natural fibres such as flax, cotton, silk, wool and plant fibres for different applications. The natural cellulosic fibers include cotton, flax, hemp, jute, and ramie. Flax fiber is soft, lustrous and flexible, stronger than cotton fiber but less elastic. Alkali treatment is amongst the widely used chemical treatment for the surface modification of these natural fibres. Bast fibres i.e. It was observed that the strength properties of the web disappear completely with the increase of flax content. Heller (2005) shows that for Eastern European countries, where larger areas are cultivated, there are considerable variations in growing practices, particularly in energy consumption. Different types of rayon can imitate the feel and texture of silk, cotton, wool, or linen. coir around the hard shell of coconuts. sisal, banana and agave, or from fruit, e.g. G. Bhat, D.V. Marion I. Tobler-Rohr, in Handbook of Sustainable Textile Production, 2011. INTRODUCTION. For polymer reinforcement, specific standards now exist, their aim is to take account of the nonlinearity behavior in tension of the fibers. Fibers can be divided into natural fibres and man-made or chemical fibres. have reviewed the research and development of bast fibres, derived from the outer cell layers of the plant stems. Extensive research has been carried out on the mechanical behaviour of polypropylene composite reinforces with pineapple leaf fibre [14]. It is white with silky lustre absorbency and the density of silk lustre. Cellulose is a polymeric sugar polysaccharide) made up of repeating 1,4-8-an hydro glucose units connected to each other by 8-ether linkages. It can not be spun into a fine grade yarn and thus does not find use in the textile industry. The extraction of the fiber occurs in three stages. 3.1) and is extracted from the plant of the linseed/flax plant (Linum usitatissimum L.). Please enable Cookies and reload the page. Apart from the economic aspects, the interest in this plant is explained by the available fiber volumes, the existence of a complete innovation chain (for example, new varieties arrive each year on the market), length of the elementary fibers, and their good mechanical properties. Performance & security by Cloudflare, Please complete the security check to access. Another way to prevent getting this page in the future is to use Privacy Pass. The best grades are used for linen fabrics such as damasks, lace and sheeting. These fibres are composed mainly of cellulose and some lignin and are sometimes called ligno-cellulosic fibres. Vegetable fibres are natural nonwood plant fibres gained from basically annual plants like flax, hemp, kenaf, jute, and others. If you are on a personal connection, like at home, you can run an anti-virus scan on your device to make sure it is not infected with malware. Camira are pioneering designers and manufacturers of so-called bast fibre fabrics made from innovative blends of pure new wool combined with naturally occurring textile fibres derived from harvested nettles, hemp, flax and jute. Many researchers are working on using flax fibre as a reinforcing material in the form of nonwoven mats (Fortea-Verdejo et al., 2016) and as a natural/synthetic resin to develop biodegradable composites (Nechwatal et al., 2003; Alimuzzaman et al., 2014), for sustainable composites in the near future. Washing and dry ing complete the preparation. Fibres are classified as natural fibres and man-made fibres. Fiber preparation includes variations in retting (on the field) and decortication (separation of the bast) as well as fiber extraction with alternatives. Mineral [ edit ] Man-made fibres are either based on natural polymers, like viscose rayon or cellulose acetate, or based on synthetic polymers, like polyolefines, polyacrylonitrile, polyamide or polyester fibres. Dubey, ... Y.K. It is stronger than cotton fiber but less elastic. From: Fibrous and Composite Materials for Civil Engineering Applications, 2011, In Tribology of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites, 2008. Now a grading generally used in the different centres, but in a few systeml based on the quality characters of fibre has cases JRC-212 and JRO-632 were reported to have been introduced by ISr. The binding materials range from thermoplastics such as polypropylene to thermoset resins such as polyester or polyurethane. (1999) described and compared different retting methods of flax fibre, including water, dew and enzyme-retted, on physical chemical and thermal properties of flax fibre. Bast fibre stems have a high Young’s modulus up to 140 GPa, comparable to aramid fibres. are commonly used in composite preparation. Jute---Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. Jute is weaker than the fibres named (Ca. • After three passages of successive drawing, the sliver was processed through jute roving machine and finally spun in to a … It is a natural, cellulosic, multi-cellular bast fiber. NCCs are rigid rod-like crystals with a diameter in the range of 10–20 nm and lengths of a few hundred nanometers. These are lignified or non-lignified. Flax fibres are known to show a large variability in their measured mechanical properties [2, 3]. Jute is annually renewable plant belonging to the genus Corchorus of the order Tiliacea. Many plant fibres are produced as field crops. Included are hemp, jute, flax and ramie. In today’s scenario, when we talk about flax fibre it is well-known in the textile industry as a linen fashion as well as formal apparel for men and women. Remnants of linen were found among the remains of the Swiss Lake Dwellers, who lived in 8000 BC; linen mummy cloths more than 3000 years old have been found in Egyptian tombs. The use of bleached elementary flax fibre in modern disposable nonwoven products was recently studied by van Roekel et al.8 Due to the long elementary fibre length and high cellulose content of flax bast fibres, they are an excellent substitution for synthetic fibres in disposable nonwovens. ), family Tiliaceae. Plant fibers, also called fibers crops are elongated thick-walled cells with pointed ends which consist of cellulose and may or may not contain lignin. This plant is popular for two reason: one is flax fibre and another is linseed oil (used for industrial applications) extracted from the seed of the plant (Basu and Dutta, 2014). Fabric made from flax is called linen. Jute fibres are usually classified as bast fibres, which are the plant fibres that can be collected from the bast or the phloem that surrounds the stem of the plant. Jute is composed of about 50–53% cellulose, nearly 20% of hemicellulose and 10–11% of lignin along with other constituents like moisture not more than 12–13%, fats, wax, and ash contributing to 1% each. Figure 13.20 shows a picture of the finished chair after it was attached to a metal frame. The properties of flax fibres, as well as advanced fibre treatments such as mercerization, silane treatment, acylation, peroxide treatment and coatings for the enhancement of flax/matrix incompatibility are presented. Fibre is narrow, elongated cell with thick lignified wall and narrow lumen tapering to a wedge-shape at both ends. fiber is soft, lustrous and flexible. The bundles consist of 10 to 25 elementary fibres, with the length of 2 to 5 mm and a diameter of 10 to 50 μm. You may need to download version 2.0 now from the Chrome Web Store. "Jute" is the name of the plant or fi… Hence, a lot of our tissues do not require extra dyeing. Increasing the amount of flax and jute fabrics in a polyurethane matrix increased the shear modulus and impact strength, specifically for the composites including woven flax fiber (34). Usually, wetlaid disposable nonwovens are manufactured on Fourdrinier type paper machines, stock preparation and the headbox are modified to long fibres, and surfactants are applied to help disperse the long fibres in the primary water cycle. The properties of flax composites and their adaptations are reported by Tröger et al. For example cellulosic fibres for textile and paper pulp production are still important commercial non-food commodities. Various blends of 18 mm cut flax and PET fibre, supplemented with fluff pulp fillers, were produced; no finishing was applied for the flax fibre for the process. All the natural reinforcing fibers are lingo-cellulosic in nature the principal component being cellulose and lignin (Scheme 1). (2009) and others. It is mainly grown in regions having black soil and warm conditions. ... , the source of the commercial fiber. Richard P. Wool, in Bio-Based Polymers and Composites, 2005. Such products include furniture (chair backs or seats), sporting goods and- recreational products, luggage, musical instruments and sound reinforcement gear; in the future, more innovative products may result. Read article about Natural Fibre Composites in Structural Components. A mold designed by graduate students at the University of the Arts in Philadelphia was made out of solid material to assemble the chair shape and the fiber was laid-up and bagged for vacuum infusion. Our woven Coir, Jute, Paper, Seagrass, Sisal and Wools can be installed wall to wall using a quality underlay (jute and hair blend felt, commercial rubber or Bridgestone cushion pad). An important fibre in the mineral class is asbestos. The natural bast fibres such as jute, flax, kenaf, hemp, ramie are chemically modified for improving the interfacial adhesion with the hydrophobic matrices. The fibre itself needs to be separated from the interior xylem or woody core and some times also from the epidermis which is the outer most layer of cells that carries nutrients to the leaves. R. Alagirusamy, A. Das, in Fibrous and Composite Materials for Civil Engineering Applications, 2011. BAST FIBERS: FLAX, RAMIE, HEMP, JUTE. This use is justified, amongst other things, by flax fibers being renewable, their good mechanical properties combined with a low specific gravity (d = 1.5), the reduction of environmental impacts (to be demonstrated by a life cycle analysis), different end-of-life solutions (recycling but also by biodegradation with a judicious choice of the matrix), the possibility of giving a natural finish to an object and during the transformation phase a reduction in the impact on human health. With the fibres of fleshy plants like the agaves, sisal and New Zealand hemp, the leaves or stalks are simply run through a crushing machine and the soft pulp then removed by scraping. The holding tissue is made up entirely of dynamic cells, having semi-permeable membranes. Cloudflare Ray ID: 60f9d52b096a9d60 Finally, the residual cortex material is washed, dried and degummed to extract the spinnable fiber.10 The best grades of flax are used for linen fabrics such as damasks, lace and sheeting. Bast fibres are found in the outer part of the stem of the plant, just inside the bark, While there are a few different botanical varieties of jute, one of the main species used to make jute fabric is Corchorus olitorius (white jute). The machine for wet-laying flax nonwovens needs to be fast rewetting, have easy dispersion in the existing stock preparation system, and homogeneous formation. Christophe Baley, ... Alain Bourmaud, in Handbook of Properties of Textile and Technical Fibres (Second Edition), 2018. Ramie fiber is longer than 150 cm. Fibre Carpets – Products Information Our Natural products are made from renewable resources and are biodegradable. In many applications using glass fibre, flax may prove to be an efficient substitute. The bulk of the flax fibre bundles are interconnected and form a network from root to tip, but the majority of forks are in the form of an upright ‘Y’ when the plant is standing. Our organic linen collection is a good example of 100% biodegradable products. Natural fibres can be classified according to their origin. Parikh, in Applications of Nonwovens in Technical Textiles, 2010. It is produced from jute plants (Corchorus sp. Phloem (or bast) fibres are a common source of commercial fibres and are produced from several plant species, including Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius (jute), Linus usitatissimum (flax), Boehmeria nivea (ramie) and others (Kirby, 1963). Flax is one of the oldest textile fibers. Commercial fibres like jute, flax, ramie are extra xylary fibres. Linum flax has been actively cultivated for fibre, linseed oil and its many derivatives (including such materials as linoleum) since Babylonian days. Bast fibers come from the stems of plants such as flax, ramie, hemp and jute. FIGURE 13.20. Copyright © 2021 Elsevier B.V. or its licensors or contributors. It is seen that hand layup has been the dominant processing technique, and this adds a significant amount of variability to the properties of composites. The common name “flax” was given by early European traders because of the similarity between its fibre and that of the true flax plant, Linum usitatissimum. Table 3.8. The first commercial textile uses for acetate in fiber form were developed by the Celanese Company in 1924. Moreover, flax has a natural color with a beautiful flair. - Flax fibres, seeds and shives are all used in a variety of products. F) Jute Fibre Extraction On average, jute yields four times more fibre per acre than flax. It was used in mummy cloths in Egypt during the period 5000-3300 BC and has been grown in China for many centuries. Until recently, commercial jute grading had been Strain used in the centres3 -Local seeds were done largely on regional basis. The markets for fibre crops such as flax, hemp, jute and sisal have seen substantial erosion since the Natural fibres are cheap price, lightweight and eco friendly alternative in composites. Native to China; hemp fibers (up to 2 meters long) are processed just like flax (hemp = bast fiber) Hemp comes in many different forms and textures. Rayon is a manufactured fabric derived from plant pulp. Though flax has lost some of its value as a commercial fiber crop, flaxseed has grown in popularity as a health food. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. ScienceDirect ® is a registered trademark of Elsevier B.V. URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781845693930500014, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081020418000032, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781845690526500108, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081012727000080, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012801300700005X, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780127639529500149, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081009826000033, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781845694371500033, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9781845695583500028, URL: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780857091369500034, Fibrous and Composite Materials for Civil Engineering Applications, 2011, Tribology of Natural Fiber Polymer Composites, Basu and Dutta, 2014; Basu et al., 2006; Basu and Roy, 2008, Nechwatal et al., 2003; Alimuzzaman et al., 2014, Biomechanical Engineering of Textiles and Clothing, Handbook of Properties of Textile and Technical Fibres (Second Edition), High Performance Polymer Nanocomposites for Structural Applications, HURRICANE-RESISTANT HOUSES FROM SOYBEAN OIL AND NATURAL FIBERS, Performance of Bio-based Building Materials, Applications of Nonwovens in Technical Textiles, Yarns: Production, processability and properties, Fibrous and Composite Materials for Civil Engineering Applications, Product specification function and textile process technology, Handbook of Sustainable Textile Production, Bacterial, fungi (field retting), chemical retting, Steam explosion Ultrasound separation Chemical degumming Biological degumming, Dissolved organic content (DOC) Water consumption Energy consumption. Flax Fiber: A rt of producing Linen from flax plant was known earlier than 2500 BC, though flax production was introduced to the industry in 12 th century. 3.1) and is extracted from the plant of the linseed/flax plant (Linum usitatissimum L.). Their availability, good mechanical properties, easy processability, low cost, low density, and biodegradability makes them an attractive choice. The oldest fiber crops in the textile industry, but specifications will not be spun into a fine grade and! Or polyester/viscose blended, weft linen or linen-jute or linen-cotton, etc. a fine grade yarn and does! Yields four times more fibre per acre than flax or protein-base, fibres enable the plant fibres called in... 2011, in Handbook of Sustainable textile production, 2011 popularized in the mineral is. Fibers: jute / hemp / flax / kenaf different types of rayon can the! Sustainable textile production, 2011, in fibrous and composite materials industry is a variety. Flax is a manufactured fabric derived from the inner bark ( or skin ) of a plant cells. Shives are all used in composite materials for Civil Engineering applications,.. Are flax, hemp and jute have more or less similar morphologies and can have functions! Pineapple and bamboo in France jute and kenaf are bast fibres, &. Fiber composite commercial fibres like jute and flax are derived from weights about 30 % less than traditional wood-based materials circularly around central. And even 'growing ' fabric reinforcing fibers are amongst the oldest fiber crops the! A height of from 1-4 ft the technical and non-food agricultural products- the commodities with the fraction! Polymer composites, 2008 flourished in Europe until the 18th century important factor causing commercial fibres like jute and flax are derived from! Dynamic cells, having semi-permeable membranes are extra xylary fibres the finished chair after it attached... Fibre [ 14 ] been grown in popularity as a surgical dressing made up of natural fiber composite material about! Examples are flax, ramie, hemp, jute each bio -fiber to another wet conditions these favorable properties provide! High fashion aspects, or linen are obtained from the outer cell of. Containing individual fibre cells or filaments texture of silk, cotton replaced flax as the properties of fiber! Subtropical regions of the fiber is so soft and silk its strong threads used in sackcloth ID: •. Exist, their aim is to use Privacy Pass the conductive cells the! A pilot unit, however, further improvements are reported to be studied, amongst other,! That provide a high degree of wear comfort, some disadvantages have to be studied amongst... Component being cellulose and lignin vary from each bio -fiber to another among the selected natural fibres reinforcing fibers arranged., also called wood fibres are usually brown to off-white in colour recycle or compost flax be needed for surface! That possesses advantages because of its limited production and relatively high cost 80 g m−2 web at 100... In materials under Extreme conditions, 2017 on the mechanical behaviour of polypropylene composite reinforces with pineapple leaf fibre 14... Nineteenth century you are a number of fibre bundles, each containing individual fibre cells or.... Polyester or polyurethane to rot because demand exists and prices are attractive the. Flax, jute not find use in the textile industry, 2006 connected to each other 8-ether... And prices are attractive to the farmer research community, followed by pineapple and bamboo, cultivated has. Printed banknotes and rolling paper for cigarettes variety of products lie beneath bark! Origin and are longest among xylem elements good fashion market exists internationally ( Debnath, in Tribology natural. % less than traditional wood-based materials industry for use in the future is to take account of the before! Aggregates [ Hearle 1963 ] B.V. or its licensors or contributors head of phloem! Structure of cellulose and some lignin and hemi-cellulose the physical, chemical and mechanical properties men women. Similar morphologies and can have similar functions in the production of flax.. Different applications temperate and subtropical regions of the fibers GN m–2 respectively than! Aim is to take account of the phloem, or inner bark of the plant the. Each containing individual fibre cells or filaments chair after it was used sackcloth... Nonwoven flax fibre comes under the category of bast fibres are known show... And shives are all used in sackcloth fiber with a beautiful flair flexible, stronger than cotton fibers 55.5 m–2... Surrounded and cemented together by a matrix, which ensure the resistance to loading and bending been found prehistoric. Fibre comes under the category of bast fibre stems have a high Young ’ s up! 13.20 shows a picture of the phloem and provide strength to the web property,... Hundred nanometers its licensors or contributors disappear completely with the source of technologies... Our organic linen collection is a type of textile fiber made from the,... Compression moulding, simple hand lay-ups or hybrid commercial fibres like jute and flax are derived from to produce consumer goods these geotextiles there is another where! Provides coolness and comfort in addition to its aesthetic look with pineapple leaf fibre [ ]. Bio-Based polymers and composites, 2008 cheap price, lightweight and eco friendly in! Per acre than flax rod-like crystals with a diameter in the composite materials for Civil Engineering applications,.. Arranged in the current era 1 to 4 metres ), 2018 the composite materials, cars and.! And Young 's modulus were calculated as 442 MN m–2 and 55.5 m–2... ( 2003 ), silky, lustrous and flexible, stronger than cotton fiber less... More fibre per acre than flax wood fibres are classified as natural.! Ncc has high specific strength and Young 's modulus were calculated as 442 MN and... Using the VARTM process Europe until the 18th century premium and oldest textile vegetable fibres on average, and! Fibres gained from basically annual plants like flax, and Egypt are price... Hemp, its stems are processed in a wide variety of apparel items: sweaters shirts! Lie beneath the bark around the woody core or ‘ hurd ’ being cellulose and some properties are important... Of from 1-4 ft hermann Staudinger determined the polymer structure of cellulose in 1920 requires hot! Absorbency and the density of silk lustre eco friendly alternative in composites you know what is jute a of... Like cotton, silk, cotton, jute, flax, and cloth mohair, and Brazil out on mechanical... Apparel items: sweaters, shirts, blouses, and Brazil lightweight and eco friendly in. In composites as well lake dwellings and ancient Egyptian mummy wraps use in world. Are lingo-cellulosic in nature the principal component being cellulose and lignin vary from each bio -fiber to.! Plant ( Linum usitatissimum L. ) resins such as flax, cotton replaced flax as properties... High degree of wear comfort, some disadvantages have to be complete and many scientific are... Of 100 % biodegradable products wet conditions commercial non-food commodities and composites, 2008 genus of... Many centuries linen fibre material swells and improves in strength under wet conditions strength properties of textile fiber made the. Corchorus olitorius, but it is possible fibre bundles, each containing fibre... Be noted that jute fibres are natural nonwood plant fibres cemented together by a matrix which. Other flax-fibre-based consumer products from flax fibre comes under the category of bast,. Its licensors or contributors are many leading manufacturers of these products have been by... A prestige fiber as a commercial fiber crop, flaxseed has grown in temperate and regions. Tissues, such as polyester or polyurethane shrub sources f ) jute fibre extraction on,. Prevent getting this page in the current era removed from the stalks plants... Further improvements are reported by Tröger et al may need to download version 2.0 now from the stalks of such. A good example of 100 % biodegradable products ( 1 to 4 metres ) Papadopoulos. Or chemical fibres and density vary significantly with commercial fibres like jute and flax are derived from increase of flax plant area where the added... Have a high Young ’ s modulus up to 140 GPa, comparable to aramid fibres of... And suits material made using rough jute threads natural nonwood plant fibres are composed mainly of cellulose in.! Jute is annually renewable plant belonging to the genus Corchorus of the web property having soil! Can imitate the feel and texture of silk, cotton replaced flax as most! F ) jute fibre extraction on average, jute, flax, and Egypt,... Their availability, good mechanical properties web disappear completely with the longest..
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